At its core, probability deals with experiments that yield random short-term results but reveal long-term predictability. A central concept here is the Law of Large Numbers, which states that as the number of repetitions of a probability experiment increases, the proportion with which a certain outcome is observed gets closer to the actual probability of that outcome.
The Two Fundamental Rules of Probabilities
A valid probability model lists the possible outcomes of an experiment and each outcome's probability. Every probability model must satisfy two basic rules:
- Rule 1: The probability of any event $E$, denoted as $P(E)$, must be greater than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 1, meaning $0\le P(E)\le1$. An impossible event has a probability of 0, while a certain event has a probability of 1.
- Rule 2: The sum of the probabilities of all possible outcomes in the sample space must equal exactly 1.
Three Ways to Determine Probability
There are three primary methods for computing probabilities depending on the situation:
- The Empirical Method: This approach relies on real-world observation, where the probability of an event is approximately the number of times the event is observed divided by the number of repetitions of the experiment. It evaluates probability based on relative frequency.
- The Classical Method: This method is used when an experiment has equally likely outcomes. The probability of an event $E$ is calculated as $P(E)=\frac{N(E)}{N(S)}$, where $N(E)$ is the number of outcomes in $E$ and $N(S)$ is the number of outcomes in the sample space.
- Subjective Probabilities: This is a probability obtained on the basis of personal judgment, such as a sports reporter predicting a team has a 20% chance to play in a championship series.
The Addition Rules
When determining the probability that one event or another event will happen, you need to evaluate if the events are disjoint. Two events are disjoint, or mutually exclusive, if they have no outcomes in common.
- Addition Rule for Disjoint Events: If events $E$ and $F$ are disjoint, then $P(E~or~F)=P(E)+P(F)$.
- The General Addition Rule: If events are not mutually exclusive and have overlapping outcomes, you must subtract the overlapping probability so it isn't counted twice. For any two events $E$ and $F$, the rule is $P(E~or~F)=P(E)+P(F)-P(E~and~F)$.
The Complement Rule
Sometimes it is easier to calculate the probability that an event will not happen. The complement of an event $E$, denoted as $E^{C}$, is all outcomes in the sample space that are not outcomes in the event $E$.
The Complement Rule states that $P(E^{C})=1-P(E)$. For example, if 52% of Americans have played state lotteries, the probability that a randomly selected American has not played is $1-0.52=0.48$.